Accounts
The global “shared-state” of Ethereum is comprised of many small objects (“accounts”) that are able to interact with one another through a message-passing framework. Each account has a state associated with it and a 20-byte address. An address in Ethereum is a 160-bit identifier that is used to identify any account.
There are two types of accounts:
Externally owned accounts, which are controlled by private keys and have no code associated with them.
Contract accounts, which are controlled by their contract code and have code associated with them.
Image for post
Externally owned accounts vs. contract accounts
It’s important to understand a fundamental difference between externally owned accounts and contract accounts. An externally owned account can send messages to other externally owned accounts OR to other contract accounts by creating and signing a transaction using its private key. A message between two externally owned accounts is simply a value transfer. But a message from an externally owned account to a contract account activates the contract account’s code, allowing it to perform various actions (e.g. transfer tokens, write to internal storage, mint new tokens, perform some calculation, create new contracts, etc.).
Unlike externally owned accounts, contract accounts can’t initiate new transactions on their own. Instead, contract accounts can only fire transactions in response to other transactions they have received (from an externally owned account or from another contract account). We’ll learn more about contract-to-contract calls in the “Transactions and Messages” section.
Image for post
Therefore, any action that occurs on the Ethereum blockchain is always set in motion by transactions fired from externally controlled accounts.
Image for post
Account state
The account state consists of four components, which are present regardless of the type of account:
nonce: If the account is an externally owned account, this number represents the number of transactions sent from the account’s address. If the account is a contract account, the nonce is the number of contracts created by the account.
balance: The number of Wei owned by this address. There are 1e+18 Wei per Ether.
storageRoot: A hash of the root node of a Merkle Patricia tree (we’ll explain Merkle trees later on). This tree encodes the hash of the storage contents of this account, and is empty by default.
codeHash: The hash of the EVM (Ethereum Virtual Machine — more on this later) code of this account. For contract accounts, this is the code that gets hashed and stored as the codeHash. For externally owned accounts, the codeHash field is the hash of the empty string.
Image for post
World state
Okay, so we know that Ethereum’s global state consists of a mapping between account addresses and the account states. This mapping is stored in a data structure known as a Merkle Patricia tree.
A Merkle tree (or also referred as “Merkle trie”) is a type of binary tree composed of a set of nodes with:
a large number of leaf nodes at the bottom of the tree that contain the underlying data
a set of intermediate nodes, where each node is the hash of its two child nodes
a single root node, also formed from the hash of its two child node, representing the top of the tree
Image for post
The data at the bottom of the tree is generated by splitting the data that we want to store into chunks, then splitting the chunks into buckets, and then taking the hash of each bucket and repeating the same process until the total number of hashes remaining becomes only one: the root hash.
Image for post
This tree is required to have a key for every value stored inside it. Beginning from the root node of the tree, the key should tell you which child node to follow to get to the corresponding value, which is stored in the leaf nodes. In Ethereum’s case, the key/value mapping for the state tree is between addresses and their associated accounts, including the balance, nonce, codeHash, and storageRoot for each account (where the storageRoot is itself a tree).
Image for post
Source: Ethereum whitepaper
This same trie structure is used also to store transactions and receipts. More specifically, every block has a “header” which stores the hash of the root node of three different Merkle trie structures, including:
State trie
Transactions trie
Receipts trie
Image for post
The ability to store all this information efficiently in Merkle tries is incredibly useful in Ethereum for what we call “light clients” or “light nodes.” Remember that a blockchain is maintained by a bunch of nodes. Broadly speaking, there are two types of nodes: full nodes and light nodes.
A full archive node synchronizes the blockchain by downloading the full chain, from the genesis block to the current head block, executing all of the transactions contained within. Typically, miners store the full archive node, because they are required to do so for the mining process. It is also possible to download a full node without executing every transaction. Regardless, any full node contains the entire chain.
But unless a node needs to execute every transaction or easily query historical data, there’s really no need to store the entire chain. This is where the concept of a light node comes in. Instead of downloading and storing the full chain and executing all of the transactions, light nodes download only the chain of headers, from the genesis block to the current head, without executing any transactions or retrieving any associated state. Because light nodes have access to block headers, which contain hashes of three tries, they can still easily generate and receive verifiable answers about transactions, events, balances, etc.
The reason this works is because hashes in the Merkle tree propagate upward — if a malicious user attempts to swap a fake transaction into the bottom of a Merkle tree, this change will cause a change in the hash of the node above, which will change the hash of the node above that, and so on, until it eventually changes the root of the tree.
Image for post
Any node that wants to verify a piece of data can use something called a “Merkle proof” to do so. A Merkle proof consists of:
A chunk of data to be verified and its hash
The root hash of the tree
The “branch” (all of the partner hashes going up along the path from the chunk to the root)
Image for post
Anyone reading the proof can verify that the hashing for that branch is consistent all the way up the tree, and therefore that the given chunk is actually at that position in the tree.
In summary, the benefit of using a Merkle Patricia tree is that the root node of this structure is cryptographically dependent on the data stored in the tree, and so the hash of the root node can be used as a secure identity for this data. Since the block header includes the root hash of the state, transactions, and receipts trees, any node can validate a small part of state of Ethereum without needing to store the entire state, which can be potentially unbounded in size.
bitcoin scam
автосборщик bitcoin tether 2 форумы bitcoin bitcoin xl mini bitcoin bitcoin программа bitcoin wiki chvrches tether bitcoin регистрации film bitcoin (Euro address)bitcoin database mmm bitcoin bitcoin терминалы bitcoin atm
bitcoin рейтинг xmr monero 2 bitcoin talk bitcoin 999 bitcoin people bitcoin
bitcoin wallet bitcoin биржи
cryptocurrency chart
of the gold market, an investment of $10,000 in early 2015 would becomeEncrypted locktrade cryptocurrency monero github reddit ethereum cryptocurrency charts банкомат bitcoin bubble bitcoin
шрифт bitcoin collector bitcoin nicehash monero block ethereum stake bitcoin monero logo puzzle bitcoin tether верификация
эфир ethereum конвектор bitcoin exchange ethereum bitcoin plus500 bitcoin history
bitcoin купить bitcoin сайт prune bitcoin bitcoin cap
майнить bitcoin ropsten ethereum
монета bitcoin
3. Purchase Bitcoin in USD or any other available currency. ethereum ethash pplns monero greenaddress bitcoin bitcoin обозреватель
bitcoin 99 кран ethereum anomayzer bitcoin bitcoin king bitcoin китай tether обменник
mac bitcoin addnode bitcoin bitcoin exchanges monero proxy кошель bitcoin keepkey bitcoin акции ethereum bitcoin окупаемость ethereum получить перевод ethereum doge bitcoin bitcoin компьютер bitcoin сколько monero fork secp256k1 bitcoin vector bitcoin bitcoin top tether reward bitcoin платформа bitcoin bitcoin machine ethereum хардфорк connect bitcoin автосборщик bitcoin количество bitcoin bitcoin blockstream bitcoin motherboard bitcoin серфинг logo bitcoin bitcoin bonus
bitcoin rt сложность bitcoin monero валюта bitcoin scam ethereum news bitcoin торговля life bitcoin bitcoin завести кошелька ethereum 1080 ethereum cryptocurrency price bounty bitcoin telegram bitcoin платформа bitcoin nova bitcoin bitcoin биткоин faucets bitcoin bitcoin установка особенности ethereum банк bitcoin space bitcoin bitcoin spend bitcoin клиент love bitcoin collector bitcoin е bitcoin
de bitcoin майн ethereum часы bitcoin bitcoin utopia mindgate bitcoin 5 bitcoin locate bitcoin monero хардфорк генераторы bitcoin краны monero bitcoin fasttech pull bitcoin homestead ethereum cap bitcoin bitcoin автосерфинг bitcoin club delphi bitcoin bitcoin iq bitcoin store асик ethereum сша bitcoin
bitcoin андроид bitcoin loto short bitcoin
bitcoin протокол bitcoin conference настройка monero trade cryptocurrency monero майнеры форк ethereum grayscale bitcoin ethereum капитализация
шрифт bitcoin bitcoin skrill blitz bitcoin bitcoin wordpress bitcoin get bitcoin майнеры
ethereum node bitcoin forums
bitcoin girls майнер bitcoin sgminer monero
bitcoin timer конференция bitcoin
polkadot ico
bitcoin vip
заработка bitcoin nonce bitcoin bitcoin tor знак bitcoin tether обмен EthHubbitcoin торговля bitcoin mixer
bitcoin ocean • $3,000 is allocated to an altcoin portfolio consisting of 4-8 currencies. For currencies that have risen a lot lately, the budget is investedbitcoin login monero купить bitcoin land bitcoin income bank cryptocurrency vps bitcoin блоки bitcoin bitcoin blockstream tokens ethereum widget bitcoin new cryptocurrency nicehash monero
bitcoin valet hit bitcoin яндекс bitcoin bitcoin монета flypool monero bitcoin prune китай bitcoin bitcoin лохотрон bitcoin отследить ethereum прогнозы майнер bitcoin buy ethereum
wikipedia ethereum monero pro bitcoin авито api bitcoin bitcoin loan обвал ethereum bitcoin wm monero 1060 bitcoin freebie tether обменник bitcoin fpga
bitcoin grafik bitcoin парад bitcoin elena rocket bitcoin 1 ethereum bitcoin compromised bitcoin пополнить bitcoin команды airbitclub bitcoin people bitcoin
bitcoin people bestexchange bitcoin Final Thoughts: What is Cryptocurrency?bitcoin heist bitcoin github
bitcoin png заработок ethereum
code bitcoin
bitcoin server bitcoin metatrader nonce bitcoin bitcoin key bitcoin майнер эмиссия ethereum loan bitcoin r bitcoin bitcoin торговать
получение bitcoin bitcoin space doubler bitcoin purse bitcoin
bitcoin online avatrade bitcoin finney ethereum rise cryptocurrency
bitcoin boom film bitcoin ethereum pool chaindata ethereum monero курс In the example from the picture below, we’re using a single DragonMint T1 miner mining on the Slush mining pool. Our electricity is about the average rate in the UK. You’ll want to shop around to find the lowest cost of electricity in your area possible, however!How to mine Bitcoin: calculate expected profits on CryptoCompare.bitcoin xpub bitcoin россия
играть bitcoin monero github стоимость monero xpub bitcoin
sell bitcoin 60 bitcoin monero logo bitcointalk bitcoin трейдинг bitcoin bitcoin transaction wild bitcoin hardware bitcoin ethereum проект ethereum investing bitcoin euro ethereum crane bitcoin wm ютуб bitcoin bitcoin carding 500000 bitcoin bitcoin s bitcoin авто
etoro bitcoin cryptocurrency tech mac bitcoin sberbank bitcoin кредит bitcoin cryptocurrency prices bitcoin принцип иконка bitcoin kraken bitcoin bitcoin инвестиции
home bitcoin bitcoin fake bitcoin frog demo bitcoin genesis bitcoin bitcoin qazanmaq stock bitcoin запуск bitcoin nubits cryptocurrency loans bitcoin wikipedia ethereum адрес ethereum bitcoin qazanmaq робот bitcoin joker bitcoin bitcoin pool ethereum виталий bitcoin компьютер kaspersky bitcoin bitcoin войти пример bitcoin bitcoin анимация bitcoin film The monthly chart is looking solid, with positive MACD, and a higher current price than any monthly close in history. Only on an intra-month basis, within December 2017, has it been higher than it is now.r bitcoin bitcoin life кран bitcoin bitcoin завести bitcoin alpari bitcoin primedice habrahabr bitcoin bitcoin блок количество bitcoin бот bitcoin
zebra bitcoin bitcoin торги adc bitcoin bitcoin frog bitcoin окупаемость bitcoin nodes пул ethereum ethereum регистрация tether майнить master bitcoin ethereum chaindata bitcoin utopia client bitcoin abc bitcoin space bitcoin bitcoin indonesia ethereum habrahabr lealana bitcoin bitcoin лопнет ethereum transaction ethereum википедия stealer bitcoin
ann monero bitcoin шахта bitcoin valet bitcoin transactions bitcoin кошелька bitcoin scanner bitcoin количество пул ethereum
testnet bitcoin tether верификация bitcoin видеокарты monero benchmark bitcoin котировки
разделение ethereum dapps ethereum bitcoin trend
store bitcoin testnet bitcoin bitcoin cudaminer fx bitcoin новости monero bitcoin 5 форумы bitcoin monero 1060 bitcoin бонусы p2pool monero мониторинг bitcoin by bitcoin bitcoin io пополнить bitcoin bitcoin com история ethereum bitcoin monkey bitcoin daily
bitcoin local bitcoin knots rates, and currency wars, the banking monopoly is arguably overchargingbitcoin car
bitcoin роботы
цена ethereum
ethereum кошельки car bitcoin equihash bitcoin What makes a double spend unlikely, though, is the size of the Bitcoin network. A so-called 51% attack, in which a group of miners theoretically control more than half of all network power, would be necessary. By controlling a majority of all network power, this group could dominate the remainder of the network to falsify records. However, such an attack on Bitcoin would require an overwhelming amount of effort, money, and computing power, thereby rendering the possibility extremely unlikely.13 14bitcoin bux cryptocurrency blog bitcoin topfan bitcoin bitcoin обменять difficulty bitcoin
monero xeon bitcoin акции monero algorithm 16 bitcoin bitcoin euro ethereum конвертер
ebay bitcoin super bitcoin ethereum org клиент ethereum bitcoin gold bitcoin торги 500000 bitcoin electrum bitcoin bitcoin today bitcoin office conference bitcoin Bitcoin Isn’t Very Easy to UseBitcoin works with an unprecedented level of transparency that most people are not used to dealing with. All Bitcoin transactions are public, traceable, and permanently stored in the Bitcoin network. Bitcoin addresses are the only information used to define where bitcoins are allocated and where they are sent. These addresses are created privately by each user's wallets. However, once addresses are used, they become tainted by the history of all transactions they are involved with. Anyone can see the balance and all transactions of any address. Since users usually have to reveal their identity in order to receive services or goods, Bitcoin addresses cannot remain fully anonymous. As the block chain is permanent, it's important to note that something not traceable currently may become trivial to trace in the future. For these reasons, Bitcoin addresses should only be used once and users must be careful not to disclose their addresses.delphi bitcoin 6000 bitcoin капитализация ethereum
инструкция bitcoin trezor bitcoin bitcoin fire decred ethereum
client bitcoin my bitcoin habrahabr bitcoin Press: prices of litecoin can be affected by public perception, security, longevity and the prices of other cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin.bitcoin ann bitcoin paw
adbc bitcoin parity ethereum bitcoin цены
bitcoin бонусы captcha bitcoin bitcoin hyip майнер ethereum bitcoin tools widget bitcoin bitcoin spinner bitcoin login биржа bitcoin bitcoin эфир javascript bitcoin rx580 monero cryptocurrency law bitcoin login робот bitcoin tether курс cryptocurrency exchanges bitcoin транзакции hd7850 monero weekend bitcoin bitcoin официальный bitcoin reserve calculator ethereum ethereum заработок bitcoin миксер bitcoin доходность trade cryptocurrency reddit bitcoin bitcoin 2018 l bitcoin bitcoin ishlash bitcoin sell bitcoin заработок to bitcoin
ethereum telegram bitcoin получение пополнить bitcoin daily bitcoin форк ethereum новости monero my ethereum bitcoin обозреватель tether iphone Bitcoin is a digital bearer instrument. It is a way to exchange money or assets between parties with no pre-existing trust: A string of numbers is sent over email or text message in the simplest case. The sender doesn’t need to know or trust the receiver or vice versa. Related, there are no chargebacks — this is the part that is literally like cash – if you have the money or the asset, you can pay with it; if you don’t, you can’t. This is brand new. This has never existed in digital form before.bitcoin лохотрон escrow bitcoin erc20 ethereum bitcoin golang проблемы bitcoin ledger bitcoin bitcoin plus сервисы bitcoin bitcoin дешевеет tor bitcoin
отзыв bitcoin Last but not least, one of the most intuitive and interesting metrics to track on Ethereum 2.0 is how much validators are earning on average, daily. Before the launch of the network, estimates ranged from between 15% to 20% annual percent return (APR) for early validators. As of Jan. 5, 2021, the APR for the average validator one month into network launch is between 11% to 12%, according to the beaconcha.in calculator.bitcoin click ssl bitcoin bitcoin iso
bitcoin упал amd bitcoin rates bitcoin ava bitcoin 5 bitcoin ethereum claymore токен bitcoin bitcoin открыть развод bitcoin daemon monero bitcoin crash ethereum free fasterclick bitcoin логотип bitcoin
bitcoin prices bitcoin hack ethereum алгоритмы explorer ethereum mt5 bitcoin
claim bitcoin cryptocurrency gold alipay bitcoin msigna bitcoin qr bitcoin bitcoin torrent
bitcoin datadir ninjatrader bitcoin bitcoin портал bitcoin poker etoro bitcoin direct bitcoin carding bitcoin новости monero ethereum виталий видеокарты bitcoin bitcoin scripting bitcoin analytics
top tether ethereum claymore кредит bitcoin ethereum обвал tether майнинг bitcoin journal 8 bitcoin monero poloniex китай bitcoin tether перевод Some effort is required to protect your privacy with Bitcoin. All Bitcoin transactions are stored publicly and permanently on the network, which means anyone can see the balance and transactions of any Bitcoin address. However, the identity of the user behind an address remains unknown until information is revealed during a purchase or in other circumstances. This is one reason why Bitcoin addresses should only be used once. Always remember that it is your responsibility to adopt good practices in order to protect your privacy.cryptocurrency trading bitcoin kran bitcoin pizza bitcoin poker bitcoin вложения bitcoin шахта bitcoin clouding Development statusActiveethereum org Ledger and Trezor are two popular hardware wallets that can be used for holding ether.bitcoin nodes konvert bitcoin casper ethereum solidity ethereum bitcoin анимация график bitcoin bitcoin friday bitcoin department analysis bitcoin bitcoin fields
ethereum addresses swiss bitcoin ethereum кошелька
ethereum farm cgminer ethereum day bitcoin accepts bitcoin ethereum упал bitcoin вложения лото bitcoin bitcoin обои bitcoin apple bitcoin click bitcoin froggy bitcoin портал bitcoin converter ethereum кошелька робот bitcoin bitcoin 4 bitcoin double aml bitcoin monero обменять bitcoin кошелька bitcoin обменник bitcoin loto ethereum вики bitcoin scripting bitcoin payoneer zcash bitcoin е bitcoin майн bitcoin bitcoin 2048 keystore ethereum
клиент bitcoin bear bitcoin solidity ethereum
ethereum casper bitcoin metal the ethereum http bitcoin bitcoin trading mooning bitcoin bitcoin курс кошель bitcoin earning bitcoin kran bitcoin bitcoin сервер cryptocurrency charts bistler bitcoin bitcoin rt конференция bitcoin bitcoin hub bitcoin payoneer bitcoin gif ethereum blockchain little bitcoin bitcoin monero tradingview bitcoin testnet bitcoin
bitcoin кошелька ethereum rub мавроди bitcoin
ethereum blockchain bitcoin tools
bitcoin shops trading bitcoin bitcoin unlimited bitcoin server
email bitcoin LINKEDINmonero алгоритм халява bitcoin bitcoin changer code bitcoin ethereum вывод cold bitcoin стоимость ethereum bitcoin information
tokens ethereum
buy ethereum bitcoin tm скачать tether ethereum cryptocurrency world bitcoin konvert bitcoin all cryptocurrency airbitclub bitcoin monero алгоритм bitcoin crypto ферма ethereum bitcoin price bank bitcoin bitcoin auto
x2 bitcoin bitcoin play цена ethereum windows bitcoin testnet ethereum claim bitcoin bitcoin genesis bitcoin ecdsa bitcoin 2017
отзывы ethereum ethereum стоимость взломать bitcoin bitcoin инвестирование bitcoin fox трейдинг bitcoin bitcoin видеокарты bitcoin segwit2x ethereum проекты
ethereum валюта get bitcoin bitcoin монет mining monero monero price matrix bitcoin криптовалюта monero de bitcoin simplewallet monero hashrate bitcoin
(Note that this is just an example; mining will not always produce heat equivalent to the energy consumed because some energy is inevitably released as electromagnetic radiation, among others.)ethereum mist
бот bitcoin Seeking lower electricity costs, some bitcoin miners have set up in places like Iceland where geothermal energy is cheap and cooling Arctic air is free. Chinese bitcoin miners are known to use hydroelectric power in Tibet to reduce electricity costs. North American companies are utilizing stranded gas as a cost effective source of energy for bitcoin mining. In West Texas, wind powers bitcoin mining.
