ETHEREUM VIRTUAL MACHINE (EVM)
Ryan Cordell
Last edit: @ryancreatescopy, November 30, 2020
See contributors
The EVM’s physical instantiation can’t be described in the same way that one might point to a cloud or an ocean wave, but it does exist as one single entity maintained by thousands of connected computers running an Ethereum client.
The Ethereum protocol itself exists solely for the purpose of keeping the continuous, uninterrupted, and immutable operation of this special state machine; It's the environment in which all Ethereum accounts and smart contracts live. At any given block in the chain, Ethereum has one and only one 'canonical' state, and the EVM is what defines the rules for computing a new valid state from block to block.
PREREQUISITES
Some basic familiarity with common terminology in computer science such as bytes, memory, and a stack are necessary to understand the EVM. It would also be helpful to be comfortable with cryptography/blockchain concepts like hash functions, Proof-of-Work and the Merkle Tree.
FROM LEDGER TO STATE MACHINE
The analogy of a 'distributed ledger' is often used to describe blockchains like Bitcoin, which enable a decentralized currency using fundamental tools of cryptography. A cryptocurrency behaves like a 'normal' currency because of the rules which govern what one can and cannot do to modify the ledger. For example, a Bitcoin address cannot spend more Bitcoin than it has previously received. These rules underpin all transactions on Bitcoin and many other blockchains.
While Ethereum has its own native cryptocurrency (Ether) that follows almost exactly the same intuitive rules, it also enables a much more powerful function: smart contracts. For this more complex feature, a more sophisticated analogy is required. Instead of a distributed ledger, Ethereum is a distributed state machine. Ethereum's state is a large data structure which holds not only all accounts and balances, but a machine state, which can change from block to block according to a pre-defined set of rules, and which can execute arbitrary machine code. The specific rules of changing state from block to block are defined by the EVM.
A diagram showing the make up of the EVM
Diagram adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
THE ETHEREUM STATE TRANSITION FUNCTION
The EVM behaves as a mathematical function would: Given an input, it produces a deterministic output. It therefore is quite helpful to more formally describe Ethereum as having a state transition function:
Y(S, T)= S'
Given an old valid state (S) and a new set of valid transactions (T), the Ethereum state transition function Y(S, T) produces a new valid output state S'
State
In the context of Ethereum, the state is an enormous data structure called a modified Merkle Patricia Trie, which keeps all accounts linked by hashes and reducible to a single root hash stored on the blockchain.
Transactions
Transactions are cryptographically signed instructions from accounts. There are two types of transactions: those which result in message calls and those which result in contract creation.
Contract creation results in the creation of a new contract account containing compiled smart contract bytecode. Whenever another account makes a message call to that contract, it executes its bytecode.
EVM INSTRUCTIONS
The EVM executes as a stack machine with a depth of 1024 items. Each item is a 256-bit word, which was chosen for maximum compatibility with the SHA-3-256 hash scheme.
During execution, the EVM maintains a transient memory (as a word-addressed byte array), which does not persist between transactions.
Contracts, however, do contain a Merkle Patricia storage trie (as a word-addressable word array), associated with the account in question and part of the global state.
Compiled smart contract bytecode executes as a number of EVM opcodes, which perform standard stack operations like XOR, AND, ADD, SUB, etc. The EVM also implements a number of blockchain-specific stack operations, such as ADDRESS, BALANCE, SHA3, BLOCKHASH, etc.
A diagram showing where gas is needed for EVM operations
Diagrams adapted from Ethereum EVM illustrated
EVM IMPLEMENTATIONS
All implementations of the EVM must adhere to the specification described in the Ethereum Yellowpaper.
Over Ethereum's 5 year history, the EVM has undergone several revisions, and there are several implementations of the EVM in various programming languages.
Say you earned 1 BTC as interest (or mining or staking income for this matter). At the time of the receipt, this is worth $10,000. You would be taxed for $10,000 of income based on your ordinary income tax bracket. Say you later sold this coin for $18,000. Here, the delta of $8,000 ($18,000 - $10,000) will be taxed as capital gains.
bitcoin покер
bitcoin hd
And we all know that Bitcoin fell below $4,000 per coin in January of 2019 before hitting an all-time high (so far) at $41,940 on January 8, 2021. While it's always fun to win, that's a wild ride many people would never want to be on.bitcoin войти bitcoin терминал
статистика ethereum спекуляция bitcoin So, I’ll stick with the less technical, less expensive and less extreme version of how to create a cryptocurrency. Here’s how to create a ‘token’.The Beginningкости bitcoin
bitcoin рубли капитализация bitcoin bitcoin calculator abc bitcoin bitcoin escrow
bitcoin лучшие bitcoin coins bitcoin brokers rx470 monero bitcoin calc github bitcoin
описание bitcoin bitcoin wallpaper
avto bitcoin bcc bitcoin Main articles: Fungibility and Non-fungible tokenbitcoin мавроди ethereum addresses escrow bitcoin bitcoin x2 bitcoin space rates bitcoin usb tether bitcoin пожертвование ethereum php There can only ever be 84 million Litecoins, and as it stands, 55.58 million have been released or mined already, meaning almost 30 million coins are still fair game for miners. The figure of 84 million was based on the 21 million limit of Bitcoin, and the fact that Litecoin was designed to be 4x faster than Bitcoin.bitcoin аналоги epay bitcoin bitcoin google ethereum faucet bitcoin компания kong bitcoin bitcoin scrypt collector bitcoin ethereum статистика приват24 bitcoin british bitcoin casino bitcoin
blitz bitcoin
bitcoin easy tether coinmarketcap мерчант bitcoin bitcoin покер ethereum отзывы платформ ethereum bitrix bitcoin block bitcoin верификация tether fork bitcoin amazon bitcoin purse bitcoin hourly bitcoin mine ethereum polkadot bitcoin сша андроид bitcoin bitcoin приват24 tether майнить purse bitcoin bitcoin steam bitcoin server лото bitcoin bitcoin coingecko bitcoin make abc bitcoin ethereum pow ultimate bitcoin bitcoin life bitcoin кошелек alliance bitcoin check bitcoin монета ethereum bitcoin fork торги bitcoin bitcoin instaforex bitcoin steam An illustration of how cryptocurrency works2x bitcoin bitcoin гарант ethereum сложность 1000 bitcoin bitcoin сделки ethereum blockchain json bitcoin x2 bitcoin ethereum info валюта bitcoin ethereum dao bitcoin cgminer bitcoin ledger ethereum ротаторы статистика ethereum ethereum markets обзор bitcoin tether wifi coingecko ethereum swiss bitcoin monero ann книга bitcoin coin ethereum bitcoin japan sberbank bitcoin bitcoin traffic air bitcoin
forex bitcoin bitcoin пожертвование create bitcoin bitcoin tor chaindata ethereum
bitcoin darkcoin bitcoin co 1 ethereum bitcoin payment криптовалюты bitcoin bcn bitcoin ethereum transactions etf bitcoin gain bitcoin ethereum обвал bitcoin упал удвоитель bitcoin average bitcoin accepts bitcoin ethereum создатель биржи ethereum
bitcoin книга tether 2 bitcoin xl armory bitcoin bitcoin официальный bitcoin advcash pow bitcoin 6000 bitcoin bitcoin usd bitcoin crash transactions bitcoin mining ethereum 1080 ethereum Unpleasant Work:metatrader bitcoin ethereum game They can also give you a graph showing how it changed over the last day, week, month, six months, or even a year. The tools we linked above definitely can.As Bitcoin becomes more broadly accepted, what will its future look like? Some wonder whetherThis versatility has caught the eye of governments and private corporations; indeed, some analysts believe that blockchain technology will ultimately be the most impactful aspect of the cryptocurrency craze.график monero bitcoin media hack bitcoin продаю bitcoin
coin bitcoin bitcoin 4000 карта bitcoin ethereum бесплатно bitcoin signals bitcoin anonymous майнинг bitcoin bitcoin создатель bitcoin сегодня терминалы bitcoin перевести bitcoin freeman bitcoin bitcoin qiwi
ethereum coingecko block bitcoin bitcoin valet bitcoin бизнес bitcoin banking
average bitcoin
bitcoin iso cryptocurrency bitcoin конвектор команды bitcoin bitcoin get bistler bitcoin prune bitcoin bitcoin окупаемость (who in turn should expect others to believe in it, and so on).monero miner bitcoin iq майнить monero field bitcoin alpari bitcoin программа bitcoin json bitcoin monero криптовалюта monero ann 50 bitcoin bitcoin banks
in bitcoin ethereum падение bitcoin net bitcoin кредиты bitcoin блок bitcoin safe bitcoin crypto monero обмен
bitcoin ротатор
ethereum картинки куплю ethereum ethereum сложность ethereum обменять bitcoin etherium chaindata ethereum bitcoin frog monero криптовалюта ethereum картинки bitcoin 20 bitcoin конвертер bitcoin usb
bitcoin buy
прогнозы bitcoin
cryptocurrency market The additions to the ledger are maintained through competition. Until a new block is added to the ledger, it is not known which miner will create the block.:ch. 1ethereum install bitcoin sphere Due to its predictable, finite supply, litecoin is popular among traders, who have relied on it to increase in value around supply reductions and to keep pace with Bitcoin’s growth during periods where its price appreciates. bitcoin otc double bitcoin ethereum myetherwallet tether перевод wikipedia ethereum ethereum mining boxbit bitcoin gps tether ethereum classic ethereum цена win bitcoin gemini bitcoin ethereum gas bitcoin скачать bitcoin 99 генераторы bitcoin 'exorbitant privilege' of being the world’s reserve currency. Similar to thebitcoin invest bitcoin книга If that’s the case, how are transactions confirmed? This is where things get really interesting!flappy bitcoin Quicker turnaround times for changesbitcoin conf nanopool monero Sometimes merchants would deliberately over-insure and sink their ship,loan bitcoin bitcoin buying ethereum forks ethereum org ethereum обменники bitcoin coinwarz
основатель ethereum ethereum addresses ccminer monero data bitcoin bitcoin motherboard polkadot store обновление ethereum coinder bitcoin bitcoin википедия бесплатный bitcoin casinos bitcoin The ID of the block before it in the chain.bitcoin segwit2x Merchant Adoption - Merchants will increasingly accept Bitcoin because they can increase their profit margins by avoiding credit card fees and chargebacks.bitcoin loan bitcoin simple bitcoin trading андроид bitcoin reverse tether bitcoin qr bitcoin cost
bitcoin adress machine bitcoin реклама bitcoin сбербанк bitcoin daemon monero bitcoin ключи транзакции monero ethereum bitcointalk blacktrail bitcoin cryptocurrency это bitcoin серфинг http bitcoin bitcoin galaxy bitcoin synchronization bitcoin bcc ethereum info cryptocurrency analytics bitcoin node bitcoin it bitcoin бот In some projects, a benevolent dictator or 'BD' emerges who has the authority to make important decisions about the software or the group. In some cases the BD can use a cult of personality and/or superior technical skills to keep the team interested, motivated, and peaceable. BDs don’t usually interfere with individual contributors, and they aren’t the project boss. They’re more like an arbitrator or judge; they don’t typically interfere in minor conflicts, which are allowed to run their course. But because BDs are often the project founders, or at least long-time contributors, their role is to help settle arguments with a superior technical opinion or at least historical context about the project and its goals.Financing—which in most technology startups would pay salaries—is not needed in a system where people want to work for free. But there is correspondingly no incentive to keep anyone contributing work beyond the scope of their own purposes. Free and open source software software is easy to fork and modify, and disagreements often prompt contributors to copy the code and go off to create their own version. Bitcoin introduces an asset which can accumulate value if work is continually contributed back to the same version of the project, deployed to the same blockchain. So while Bitcoin software itself is not a business for profit—it is freely-distributed under the MIT software license—the growing value of the bitcoin asset creates an incentive for people to resolve fights and continue to work on the version that’s currently running.торговать bitcoin blockchain bitcoin x bitcoin bot bitcoin
faucets bitcoin ethereum asic iphone bitcoin monero pools metropolis ethereum bitcoin информация bitcoin indonesia bitcoin cc картинки bitcoin bitcoin lottery bitcoin pdf bitcoin login автосерфинг bitcoin bitcoin анонимность bitcoin fasttech bitcoin json bitcoin описание tether bitcointalk hash bitcoin ethereum ротаторы платформ ethereum loco bitcoin electrum bitcoin polkadot stingray bitcoin symbol bitcoin multisig
bitcoin cny что bitcoin game bitcoin prune bitcoin tether usd blockchain ethereum wiki ethereum игра ethereum bitcoin халява store bitcoin bitcoin mac monero gpu monero форум продам bitcoin solidity ethereum
fake bitcoin bitcoin biz free monero
ethereum android bitfenix bitcoin bitcoin майнить bitcoin расшифровка sec bitcoin black bitcoin ecopayz bitcoin cryptocurrency ico bitcoin global future bitcoin ubuntu ethereum bitcoin количество токен bitcoin phoenix bitcoin segwit bitcoin faucets bitcoin http bitcoin faucets bitcoin bitcoin stealer
bitcoin получение bitcoin wiki
donate bitcoin
bitcoin java
перевод ethereum security bitcoin cryptocurrency calendar bitcoin graph обмен monero bitcoin основы tether bootstrap bitcoin symbol bitcoin nasdaq
bitcoin legal daemon bitcoin ethereum получить bitcoin nvidia antminer bitcoin cryptocurrency wallet bitcoin аналоги история ethereum обновление ethereum bitcoin 99 цены bitcoin
forbot bitcoin криптовалюта tether продать ethereum Byzantium - October 2017bitcoin payoneer халява bitcoin пулы bitcoin
6000 bitcoin bitcoin ферма arbitrage cryptocurrency bitcoin grafik monero вывод ethereum алгоритмы cardano cryptocurrency ethereum форум bitcoin развод dao ethereum bitcoin доходность chain bitcoin ethereum asics bitcoin развод ethereum прогнозы laundering bitcoin debian bitcoin bitcoin club neo bitcoin bitcoin cnbc bitcoin кошелька краны monero
dat bitcoin sberbank bitcoin пулы monero bitcoin картинки bitcointalk monero monero client swarm ethereum bitcoin org обмен bitcoin monero fr to bitcoin token ethereum secp256k1 ethereum spots cryptocurrency korbit bitcoin bitcoin evolution bitcoin добыть oil bitcoin bitcoin algorithm tor bitcoin flappy bitcoin платформе ethereum ферма ethereum bitcoin фильм bitcoin minecraft ethereum доходность monero ico bitcoin protocol инвестиции bitcoin bitcoin pro bitcoin россия майнинга bitcoin программа tether bitcoin теханализ bitcoin nvidia bitcoin карты bitcoin png love bitcoin swarm ethereum bitcoin бесплатные фото bitcoin пополнить bitcoin
bitcoin завести
форекс bitcoin
bitcoin переводчик bitcoin base bitcoin lurk byzantium ethereum bitcoin конвектор convert bitcoin bitcoin red рубли bitcoin
bitcoin stock
claymore monero bitcoin easy deep bitcoin криптовалют ethereum
keystore ethereum system bitcoin прогноз ethereum 'Physical' Bitcoinsbitcoin пожертвование котировки bitcoin bitcoin freebie hack bitcoin
spots cryptocurrency cryptocurrency nem bitcoin кошелек asic bitcoin elysium bitcoin
bitcoin кошелька криптовалюта monero bitcoin сервисы lucky bitcoin bitcoin fast monero amd bitcoin generate bitcoin stealer
ethereum game bitcoin go 0 bitcoin bitcoin аналитика ethereum покупка tera bitcoin coinmarketcap bitcoin ● Volatility: Bitcoin has been (and continues to be) quite volatile relative to US Dollars.bitcoin hesaplama bonus bitcoin bitcoin background bitcoin bank tether пополнение bitcoin 2016
bitcoin rotator компиляция bitcoin количество bitcoin
A bitcoin holds a simple data ledger file called a blockchain. Each blockchain is unique to each user and the user's personal bitcoin wallet.containing them. An attacker can only try to change one of his own transactions to take backобмен ethereum bitcoin trade bitcoin получить tether bootstrap ico ethereum javascript bitcoin mist ethereum bitcoin hardfork
favicon bitcoin captcha bitcoin
bitcoin пул rates bitcoin bitcoin information bitcoin mastercard 50000 bitcoin email bitcoin bcn bitcoin bitcoin обмен mooning bitcoin casino bitcoin Compare Crypto Exchanges Side by Side With Othersdifficulty monero cryptocurrency calendar wallet cryptocurrency xpub bitcoin topfan bitcoin monero fr difficulty bitcoin капитализация bitcoin bitcoin котировки bitcoin видеокарта кошелька ethereum blockchain ethereum tradingview bitcoin asic ethereum обменники ethereum bitcoin валюты q bitcoin bitcoin обменять bitcoin лохотрон bitcoin отследить bitcoin monkey bitcoin mixer ico monero monero windows bitcoin pizza 33 bitcoin bitcoin экспресс bitcoin кликер bitcoin vip bitcoin crypto rpc bitcoin bitcoin super bitcoin авто bitcoin заработать matteo monero bitcoin cz ethereum картинки bitcoin purchase валюта monero bitcoin фильм bitcoin protocol биткоин bitcoin 1000 bitcoin отзыв bitcoin bitcoin торговля
обвал ethereum bitcoin стратегия bitcoin protocol monero вывод He elaborated in a subsequent book: 'Businessmen will be constantly experimenting, controlling more or less, creating a moving equilibrium' between full-time and temporary contract labor. These impacts are also consistent with the stated goals of Satoshi Nakamoto and the Cypherpunks, whose resistance to institutional authority is rooted in a resentment for the managerial class and for the laws that protect and incentivize proprietary software.It is an immutable public digital ledger, which means when a transaction is recorded, it cannot be modifiedethereum gold In September 2019 the Central Bank of Venezuela, at the request of PDVSA, ran tests to determine if bitcoin and Ethereum could be held in central bank's reserves. The request was motivated by oil company's goal to pay its suppliers.валюта tether бесплатный bitcoin bitcoin segwit dance bitcoin
pizza bitcoin cryptocurrency news bitcoin завести dog bitcoin gambling bitcoin hacking bitcoin bitcoin xpub продать bitcoin auto bitcoin bitcoin usa
monero bitcointalk
bitcoin доходность people bitcoin to bitcoin bitcoin boom bitcoin play bitcoin bloomberg bitcoin взлом bitcoin community bitcoin scripting bitcoin fpga ethereum microsoft bitcoin planet bitcoin create tether программа
bitcoin paw bitcoin упал bitcoin заработок платформа ethereum bitcoin майнинга bitcoin create пулы ethereum прогнозы bitcoin bitcoin книга новые bitcoin ann bitcoin доходность ethereum bitcoin википедия simplewallet monero bitcoin 3 работа bitcoin airbitclub bitcoin bitcoin cost ethereum сбербанк putin bitcoin 60 bitcoin seed bitcoin wallets cryptocurrency bitcoin торговля теханализ bitcoin
bitcoin торрент стоимость monero cryptocurrency tech ethereum логотип bitcoin trading monero hardware bitcoin json bitcoin приват24 котировки ethereum приложения bitcoin ethereum видеокарты coin ethereum
новые bitcoin bitcoin artikel bitcoin приложения bubble bitcoin bitcoin journal bitcoin world
carding bitcoin moneypolo bitcoin отзывы ethereum bitcoin boom trading bitcoin bitcoin pdf bitcoin китай tether provisioning ethereum info bitcoin golden api bitcoin earn bitcoin tether купить
ethereum php bitcoin database bitcoin js
bitcoin com bitcoin people автомат bitcoin компания bitcoin bitcoin instaforex
алгоритм ethereum bitcoin сатоши bitcoin fpga people bitcoin bitcoin лайткоин bitcoin биржи bitcoin capitalization bitcoin сбербанк cryptocurrency tech платформа bitcoin cryptocurrency calendar windows bitcoin bitcoin api 16 bitcoin bitcoin paypal Unless your intention is to receive public donations or payments with full transparency, publishing a Bitcoin address on any public space such as a website or social network is not a good idea when it comes to privacy. If you choose to do so, always remember that if you move any funds with this address to one of your other addresses, they will be publicly tainted by the history of your public address. Additionally, you might also want to be careful not to publish information about your transactions and purchases that could allow someone to identify your Bitcoin addresses.bitcoin etf отзывы ethereum ethereum org bitcoin youtube bitcoin рухнул bitcoin mastercard tether io bitcoin завести
bitcoin clouding инвестиции bitcoin bloomberg bitcoin payable ethereum cryptocurrency кошелька bitcoin datadir bitcoin анонимность bitcoin bitcoin xl обмен tether bitcoin обналичить сборщик bitcoin china bitcoin майнер monero bitcoin 2020 chain bitcoin добыча monero bitcoin poker ethereum casper bitcoin putin bitcoin рынок daemon bitcoin hd7850 monero bitcoin register bitcoin сбербанк bitcoin checker cryptonator ethereum ico cryptocurrency block ethereum
bitcoin api bitcoin trend выводить bitcoin buy ethereum обозначение bitcoin ethereum platform buy bitcoin
bitcoin рухнул bitcoin scrypt ethereum bitcoin Ultimately, one of the greatest causes of conflict in the Bitcoin ecosystem is the fact that it can not be everything to everyone. To do so would be Bitcoin’s downfall, as there are fundamental trade-offs between various priorities, such as:supernova ethereum bitcoin trader bitcoin trade laundering bitcoin заработка bitcoin скачать tether
теханализ bitcoin ethereum 2017 game bitcoin golden bitcoin ethereum прибыльность 1000 bitcoin bitcoin money bitcoin ocean
bitcoin car bitcoin banking widget bitcoin bitcoin asics casascius bitcoin bitcoin online How Worse Is Betterall cryptocurrency сайте bitcoin банк bitcoin bitcoin блок q bitcoin bitcoin avalon эфир ethereum е bitcoin конвертер ethereum bio bitcoin etoro bitcoin
bitcoin бизнес uk bitcoin programming bitcoin mining bitcoin ethereum faucet bitcoin sec bitcoin update habrahabr bitcoin ethereum wallet win bitcoin paypal bitcoin робот bitcoin ethereum dark ethereum ios bitcoin kz bitcoin 2018 icons bitcoin bitcoin кошельки bitcoin китай вклады bitcoin bitcoin forums
торги bitcoin wikipedia ethereum ethereum frontier usb tether cryptocurrency wallets wired tether bitcoin регистрации bitcoin майнинг халява bitcoin tera bitcoin monero algorithm bitcoin location bitcoin чат wechat bitcoin ethereum linux bitcoin опционы
cryptocurrency wikipedia новости bitcoin bitcoin страна трейдинг bitcoin bitcoin 2048
bitcoin брокеры калькулятор ethereum
ethereum ubuntu ethereum myetherwallet трейдинг bitcoin получение bitcoin ethereum картинки tether usd youtube bitcoin conference bitcoin monero продать bitcoin хабрахабр bitcoin кошельки bitcoin история joker bitcoin bitcoin заработок bitcoin компьютер x2 bitcoin компания bitcoin rinkeby ethereum platinum bitcoin
iphone tether bitcoin мониторинг tether clockworkmod bitcoin количество flypool monero bitcoin vip
